ROBERT J. BRYAN

ORDER GRANTING, IN PART, MOTION TO DISMISS

This matter comes before the Court on the United States' Motion to Dismiss. Dkt. 12. The Court has considered the pleadings filed in support of and in opposition to the motion, oral argument on 9 August 2012, and the file herein.

Plaintiff filed this Federal Tort Claims Act ("FTCA"), 28 U.S.C. § 1346, case against the United States stemming from a fatal mountain goat attack which occurred in Olympic National Park ("Olympic" or "the park"). Dkt. 1. Now ripe is Defendant's Motion to Dismiss, where it asserts that this Court lacks subject matter jurisdiction over Plaintiffs' claims because of the discretionary function exception to FTCA liability, found at 28 U.S.C. § 2680(a). Dkt. 12. For the reasons set forth below, the discretionary function exception applies and the Plaintiff's FTCA claims should be dismissed.

I. BACKGROUND FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY

A. BACKGROUND FACTS

Olympic, formed in 1938, is one of the largest national parks. Dkt. 13, at 2. It encompasses 922,650 acres and has over three million visitors per year. Id. Olympic has diverse ecosystems, and is home to thousands of plant and animal species. Id.

Several herds of mountain goats are included in the animal species found in the park. Dkt. 13, at 2. Mountain goats tend to be reclusive animals, and when alarmed or threatened will generally seek out steep rocky areas. Dkt. 14, at 2. The summer goat range in Olympic is approximately 147,000 square acres. Id. They favor habitat of steep mountain ridges and peaks. Id.

The mountain goats are not native to the park, but were introduced a few decades prior to the park's formation. Dkt. 13, at 2. They are considered by the National Park Service as "non-native" or "exotic" species. Id. Accordingly, pursuant to national and Olympic Park policies, they are not entitled to the same level of protection as native species. Dkts. 25-1, at 26-27; and 12-2, at 8.

Olympic National Park is a "salt deficient range." Dkt. 39-18, at 10. As a result, various mammals in the park, including mountain goats, seek out salt from human sources, including antifreeze, urine (where the animal will lick up the vegetation and soil tainted with urine), and human food. Dkt. 39-18, at 10-11. Additionally, mountain goats were known "at backcountry campsites" to eat boots, pack straps, and sweatshirts for the salt content from sweating. Dkt. 39-18, at 11.

B. RECENT HUMAN - GOAT INTERACTION IN OLYMPIC

Around 2004, Olympic's Wildlife Branch Chief and biologist Dr. Patti Happe, and other park officials, became aware of increasing reports of habituated behavior of mountain goats in the Hurricane Ridge area of the park. Dkts. 14, at 3; and 39-18, at 9. (Habituation here was the loss of the mountain goat's fear response after repeated neutral or positive exposure to humans. See Id. and Dkt. 31, at 17-18). By 2006, the park began receiving reports of aggressive behavior by the mountain goats, including "standing their ground, following or chasing humans, pawing the ground, and rearing up." Dkts. 14, at 3; and 26.

Olympic had a "Nuisance and Hazardous Animal Management Plan" in effect at the time. Dkt. 12-2. Under this plan, aggressive behavior was defined as "[b]ehavior where an animal stalks, closely approaches, engages in threat displays, or chases a person." Dkt. 12-2, at 5. Mountain goats were listed as a "species of concern." Dkt. 12-2, at 6. It was noted that they could become "quite tame," but are "unpredictable and possess dangerously sharp horns," although are "usually more pestiferous than dangerous." Id. The plan includes "Management Alternatives" to deal with "problem animals." Id. These alternatives included: 1) education of the public and training for staff, 2) warnings and advisories, 3) monitoring and observation, 4) exclusion (used primarily for small mammals), 5) seasonal, non-emergency closures, 6) emergency closures, 7) aversion training, 8) capture and release, 9) capture and translocation, and 10) animal destruction. Id. (See page 14, supra)

Accordingly, after the park received further reports of increased habituation and possibly aggressive behavior from mountain goats, park rangers and field personnel hiked into the areas with high reported goat-human interactions to observe and monitor the goats. Dkt. 13, at 2. They found that the goats were "demonstrating progressively habituated and sometimes aggressive behavior." Dkt. 13, at 3. The park service decided to use radio collars with Global Positioning System units to collect data on the movement and habitat use patterns of the mountain goats. Dkt. 14, at 4.

In response to their observations and other reports from visitors, the park service began providing visitors written and verbal warnings about the goats' aggressive behavior. Dkts. 13, at 3; and 13-1, at 2-3. Warning signs were also posted at trailheads. Dkt. 13, at 3. Efforts on warning visitors were focused on the Klahanne Ridge (where the attack eventually occurred) and nearby Hurricane Ridge. Dkt. 13, at 3. Park personnel also began using "adverse conditioning" techniques on the goats. Dkt. 13, at 4. "Aversive conditioning is the use of various noise or contact devices to frighten or haze animals and modify their behavior." Dkt. 13, at 4. The park service felt that this type of conditioning could "help maintain an animal's fear of humans, deter them from specific areas such as campsites or trials, or discourage undesirable behavior or activity." Dkt. 13, at 4. The aversive conditioning that was used on the mountain goats included: 1) throwing rocks, 2) yelling, 3) clicking hiking poles, 4) clapping, 5) snapping plastic bags, 6) acting intrusively, 7) using sling shots, 8) shooting the goats with paint balls, and 9) shooting the goats with bean-bags. Dkt. 13, at 4. This conditioning was used at Hurricane Ridge, Klahanne Ridge, Seven Lakes Basin, Heart Lake and High Divide areas. Dkt. 13, at 4.

Despite the park service's efforts, in 2009 and 2010, visitors continued to report a large male goat chasing them and acting aggressively. Dkts. 26-4, at 3-5, 7-10, and 15-17; 26-5, at 2-5 and 8-11; 51-3, at 40; and 60. (In the years 2009-2010, there were around eight to eleven goats in the Hurricane Ridge/Klahanne Ridge area. Dkt. 51-1, at 22.)

According to Sanny Lustig, the park ranger assigned to the Hurricane and Klahanne Ridge areas, she and other park personnel had multiple conversations about how to manage the goat. Dkt. 51-1, at 34. The conversations were "serious and really difficult." Id. She states that the right management option "was not clear-cut" to any of them. Id.

In June of 2009, the Wildlife Branch Chief Dr. Patti Happe, sent an email to Olympic's Superintendent, Karen Gustin, the ranger assigned to the Hurricane and Klahanne Ridge areas, Sanny Lustig, and others. Dkt. 51-2, at 112. Dr. Happe wrote to give an "update on the aggressive billy goat situation at Hurricane Ridge, and start the conversation about additional management options." Id. She noted that he has "been a problem for several years," that he is "behaving in an increasing aggressive manner," and she thinks he "now perceives himself as being the dominant critter." Id. Dr. Happe expressed concern that "it may only be an [sic] matter of time until someone is hurt." Id.

On July 6, 2009, Ranger Sanny Lustig, who was regularly patrolling the Switchback trial to Klahanne Ridge and nearby areas, sent an email to Dr. Happe and various other park officials about the "cranky goat." Dkt. 26-4, at 11. She notes that they had been hazing the relatively large goat for some time, but it still returned to the trial and followed visitors. Id. She related that one group of visitors reported that it followed them closely and made them nervous. Id. She indicated that she was interested in further strategizing and noted "that's definitely the type of encounter we want to immediately respond to." Id.

The following year, on July 5, 2010, Ranger Lustig sent another email to Dr. Happe and other park officials, stating that "[f]or the past two weeks or so reports of the big billy that sounds pretty surely to be the one that has menaced the Switchback trial has been menacing the Hurricane Hill trial." Dkt. 51-2, at 109. She states that "it seems his MO is to follow people to the trial head, rear up and come in close proximity brandishing his hooves, and the latest was an actual report of a head butt." Id. It is her impression that he is "big, he's not wary, he pesters, he looks mean and as if he'll get aggressive." Dkt. 51-2. She notes that last year when they shot him with bean bags he backed off. Id.

On July 7, 2010, Susan Griffin, a researcher and Ph.D. candidate, who had worked in the park, sent an email to Dr. Happe, regarding multiple encounters she had with "the goat" on Hurricane Ridge. Dkts. 39-15, at 2 and 39-18, at 6. The email was entitled "Goat Strategerizing" and Ms. Griffin related persistent contact by "the goat." Dkt. 39-15, at 2. Ms. Griffin commented that she was "skeptical that a bit of adverse conditioning will do much for him. He sees hundreds of harmless people every day. . . I was shocked by how determined he was. I caught him 4 times with rocks to no effect." Id.

At some time prior to July 30, 2010, but after Ms. Griffin's email, Olympic's superintendent, Karen Gustin, Ranger Lustig, and Dr. Happe had a management team meeting to share information and coordinate management activities regarding the increasingly aggressive goat behavior. Dkt. 39-18, at 7. According to Dr. Happe, they "coordinated who was going to do what as far as hazing and reporting," and the rangers were going to intensify the aversive conditioning and report back to her about what they observed. Dkt. 39-18, at 8. Dr. Happe states that she was tasked to explore moving the goat elsewhere. Dkt. 39-18, at 6.

On July 30, 2010, Dr. Happe sent an email to Dr. Donny Martorello, the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife's biologist in charge of mountain goats. Dkt. 39-18, at 6. Dr. Happe testified that she was exploring whether they "had an option for translocation" with Dr. Martorello. Dkt. 39-18, at 7. In the email, Dr. Happe stated that Olympic has "a mature billy" in the Hurricane Ridge area that is "not responding to [their] efforts to have him keep at a greater distance from people." Dkt. 25-5, at 3. She noted that "[r]ecently he has been becoming increasingly aggressive and park management would like to explore other management options for him, including relocation from the area." Dkt. 25-5 at 3. Dr. Happe admitted that, at the time she had written the email, the aversive conditioning had not worked for that one goat. Dkt. 39-18, at 23.

In August and September of 2010, the park service continued to receive reports regarding the goats, including that goats were seen grazing on Klahanne Ridge (Dkt. 26-5, at 9), would not let hikers pass on the Klahanne Ridge trial (Dkt. 26-5, at 10-11), were seen pawing the ground (Dkt. 51-3, at 40), were following hikers (Dkt. 51-3, at 40), and acting "aggressively" (Dkt. 26-5, at 11).

C. ROBERT BOARDMAN IS ATTACKED AND KILLED BY A 370 POUND MOUNTAIN GOAT

On October 16, 2010, 63 year old Robert Boardman, his wife, Susan Chadd, and a friend, Pat Willits, were hiking on the Switchback trial to Klahanne Ridge, near Hurricane Ridge. Dkt. 27. When they stopped for lunch, they were approached by a large male mountain goat. Dkt. 27, at 3. It stood broadside with its neck bowed, pawed the ground, and bleated. Id. As the goat became more "agitated," they felt threatened by it and decided to leave. Id. They walked down the trail single file, with Mr. Boardman walking in the rear of the group. Id. The goat followed them and kept crowding Mr. Boardman. Id. He used the points of his walking stick to try to keep it away. Id., at 4. The goat finally attacked Mr. Boardman by dropping its head and goring him in the leg with its horns. Id. It hit Mr. Boardman's femoral artery, and then stood over Mr. Boardman, not allowing anyone to approach. Id. Eventually, hikers were able to scare it off with a space blanket. Id. Mr. Boardman died as a result of the attack. Id.

The park service destroyed the mountain goat within a few hours of the attack. Dkt. 51-1, at 34. It was found nearby, had blood on its horn, and weighed 370 pounds. Id. It was significantly larger than the average male mountain goat. Id.

Before these events, there were three other mountain goat attacks in other national parks, all non-fatal. Dkt. 13, at 5. Olympic staff members were not aware of the other attacks. Dkts. 13, at 5; and 14, at 7.

D. PROCEDURAL HISTORY

Plaintiff filed this FTCA case against the United States on November 1, 2011. Dkt. 1. Plaintiff contends that the National Park Service failed to act on numerous complaints regarding this particular animal, failed to follow its own policies and procedures regarding hazardous animals, failed to relocate or euthanize the goat, and failed to properly respond once the attack had been reported. Dkt. 1. Plaintiff seeks damages. Id.

E. PENDING MOTION

The United States now moves to dismiss Plaintiff's FTCA claims, arguing that it is immunized from suit under the discretionary function exception to the FTCA. Dkts. 12, 33, and 45. The United States here argues that there was no federal statute, regulation, or administrative policy that mandated that park officials manage the goat population in a particular manner or warn visitors in a specific manner, and so the challenged actions involved exercise of judgment. Dkts. 12, 33, and 45. It further argues that the decisions related to management of the goats were susceptible to, and were based on, social, economic, and political policy considerations. Id. The United States argues, accordingly, that Plaintiff's claims should be dismissed. Id.

Plaintiff argues that there are several policies which mandated that the park service remove or destroy the mountain goat before it killed Mr. Boardman, and that, therefore, the park service had no discretion in the matter. Dkts. 24, 39, 41, 51 and 53. Plaintiff points to evidence that the park service knew that an aggressive, dangerous, and unusually large goat was menacing hikers for years before Mr. Boardman's death. Id. Plaintiff argues that the park service knew that aversion conditioning was not working, and therefore, policy dictated that it needed to remove the goat - either by relocating it or destroying it. Id. Plaintiff also argues that the discretionary function exception does not apply because, even if there was no policy in place mandating action, the failure to implement an existing safety procedure was not a decision that was based on social, economic or political considerations. Id.

II. DISCUSSION

A. STANDARD FOR MOTION TO DISMISS

A complaint must be dismissed under Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(1) if, considering the factual allegations in the light most favorable to the plaintiff, the action: (1) does not arise under the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the United States, or does not fall within one of the other enumerated categories of Article III, Section 2, of the Constitution; (2) is not a case or controversy within the meaning of the Constitution; or (3) is not one described by any jurisdictional statute. Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 198 (1962); D.G. Rung Indus., Inc. v. Tinnerman, 626 F.Supp. 1062, 1063 (W.D. Wash. 1986); see 28 U.S.C. §§ 1331 (federal question jurisdiction) and § 1346 (United States as a defendant). When considering a motion to dismiss pursuant to Rule 12(b)(1), the court is not restricted to the face of the pleadings, but may review any evidence to resolve factual disputes concerning the existence of jurisdiction. McCarthy v. United States, 850 F.2d 558, 560 (9th Cir. 1988), cert. denied, 489 U.S. 1052 (1989); Biotics Research Corp. v. Heckler, 710 F.2d 1375, 1379 (9th Cir. 1983).

B. FTCA AND THE DISCRETIONARY FUNCTION EXCEPTION

The United States, as sovereign, is immune from suit unless it consents to be sued. See United States v. Mitchell, 445 U.S. 535, 538 (1980); Cato v. United States, 70 F.3d 1103, 1107 (9th Cir. 1995). The FTCA is a limited waiver of sovereign immunity, rendering the United States liable for certain torts of federal employees. See 28 U.S.C. § 1346(b). The FTCA provides,

Subject to the provisions of chapter 171 of this title, the district courts, . . ., shall have exclusive jurisdiction of civil actions on claims against the United States, for money damages, accruing on and after January 1, 1945, for injury or loss of property, or personal injury or death caused by the negligent or wrongful act or omission of any employee of the Government while acting within the scope of his office or employment, under circumstances where the United States, if a private person, would be liable to the claimant in accordance with the law of the place where the act or omission occurred.

Among the exceptions to the FTCA waiver of sovereign immunity is the "discretionary function exception." It excludes:

Any [§ 1346] claim based upon an act or omission of an employee of the Government, exercising due care, in the execution of a statute or regulation, whether or not such statute or regulation be valid, or based upon the exercise or performance or the failure to exercise or perform a discretionary function or duty on the part of a federal agency or an employee of the Government, whether or not the discretion involved be abused.

A two step test is used to determine whether the discretionary function applies. Terbush, at 1129 (citing Berkovitz v. United States, 486 U.S. 531, 536-37 (1988)). In the first step, the court determines "whether challenged actions involve an element of judgment or choice." Id. (quoting Berkovitz, at 536). If the challenged actions do involve an element of judgment or choice, then the court turns to the second step in the test. Id. The second step requires the court to decide "'whether that judgment is of the kind that the discretionary function exception was designed to shield,' namely, 'only governmental actions and decisions based on considerations of public policy.'" Terbush, at 1130 (quoting Berkovitz, at 536-37). The exception applies even if the decision is an abuse of discretion. Id. Each of the steps will be examined below.

1. Whether Challenged Actions Involved an Element of Judgment?

In the first step, the court determines "whether challenged actions involve an element of judgment or choice." Terbush, at 1130 (quoting Berkovitz, at 536-37). Under this step, the "nature of the conduct, rather than the status of the actor" is examined. Id. "The discretionary element is not met where 'a federal statute, regulation, or policy specifically prescribes a course of action for an employee to follow.'" Id. (quoting Berkovitz, 486 U.S. at 536). The inquiry ends if there is such a statute or policy directing mandatory and specific action because there can be no element of discretion when an employee "has no rightful option but to adhere to the directive." Id.

On the outset, it is noteworthy that the Organic Act, 16 U.S.C. § 1, sets forth the broad policy considerations that govern the NPS's management of national parks. Terbush, at 1130. The NPS is "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." 16 U.S.C. § 1. "Much of the NPS's work is grounded in the Organic Act's broad mandate to balance conservation and access." Terbush, at 1130.

The Plaintiff here argues that certain park policies show that the park service's failure to remove the problem mountain goat before October of 2010 was not a discretionary decision. Dkt. 24. She points to the national parks' "Management Policies 2006," sections 8.2.5.1 and 4.4.4.2, and argues that these policies mandated that the goat be eliminated well before it killed Mr. Boardman, and so the park employees were not, in fact, acting with discretion. Id. The "Management Policies 2006" do provide that "NPS employees must follow [the policies set forth] unless specifically waived or modified in writing by the Secretary . . ." (Dkt. 12-1, at 13) and no waivers relevant to this case were made (Dkt. 25-3). Plaintiff also references Olympic's "Nuisance and Hazardous Animal Management Plan." Dkt. 24.

The "Management Policies 2006," Section 8.2.5.1, "Visitor Safety," provides:

The saving of human life will take precedence over all other management actions as the Park Service strives to protect human life and provide for injury-free visits. The Service will do this within the constraints of the 1916 Organic Act. The primary-and very substantial-constraint imposed by the Organic Act is that discretionary management activities may be undertaken only to the extent that they will not impair park resources and values.
While recognizing that there are limitations on its capability to totally eliminate all hazards, the Service . . . will seek to provide a safe and healthful environment for visitors and employees. The Service will work cooperatively with other federal, tribal, state, and local agencies; organizations; and individuals to carry out this responsibility. The Service will strive to identify and prevent injuries from recognizable threats to the safety and health of persons and to the protection of property by applying nationally accepted codes, standards, engineering principles, and the guidance contained in Director's Orders #5OB, #5OC, #58, and #83 and their associated reference manuals. When practicable and consistent with congressionally designated purposes and mandates, the Service will reduce or remove known hazards and apply other appropriate measures, including closures,
guarding, signing, or other forms of education. In doing so, the Service's preferred actions will be those that have the least impact on park resources and values.
The Service recognizes that the park resources it protects are not only visitor attractions, but that they may also be potentially hazardous. In addition, the recreational activities of some visitors may be of especially high-risk, high-adventure types, which pose a significant personal risk to participants and which the Service cannot totally control. Park visitors must assume a substantial degree of risk and responsibility for their own safety when visiting areas that are managed and maintained as natural, cultural, or recreational environments.
These management policies do not impose park-specific visitor safety prescriptions. The means by which public safety concerns are to be addressed is left to the discretion of superintendents and other decision-makers at the park level who must work within the limits of funding and staffing. Examples include decisions about whether to install warning signs or artificial lighting, distribute weather warnings or advisories, initiate search-and-rescue operations or render emergency aid, eliminate potentially dangerous animals, close roads and trails or install guardrails and fences, and grant or deny backcountry or climbing permits. Some forms of visitor safeguards typically found in other public venues-such as fences, railings, and paved walking surfaces-may not be appropriate or practicable in a national park setting.

This portion of the park's Management Policies 2006 did not mandate that the park service remove or eliminate the mountain goat before October of 2012. The broad language in this policy does not eliminate the park employees' discretion in how to handle a problematic mountain goat. This policy language does not "specifically prescribes a course of action for an employee to follow." Terbush, at 1130. Nor does this policy provide a timeline that must be followed.

Plaintiff also points to section 4.4.4.2, "Removal of Exotic Species Already Present" of the park's Management Policies 2006, which provides, "[a]ll exotic plant and animal species that are not maintained to meet an identified park purpose will be managed-up to and including eradication-if (1) control is prudent and feasible, and (2) the exotic species . . . creates a hazard to public safety." Dkt. 25-1, at 28.

Section 4.4.4.2 of the park's Management Policies 2006 are likewise not helpful to Plaintiff. There is significant evidence in the record that the park service was attempting to "manage" the mountain goat. After the park received further reports of increased habituation and possibly aggressive behavior from mountain goats, park rangers and field personnel hiked the areas with higher goat-human interactions to observe and monitor the goats. Dkt. 13, at 2. They provided visitors written and verbal warnings about the goats' aggressive behavior. Dkts. 13, at 3; and 13-1, at 2-3. Warning signs were also posted trailheads. Dkt. 13, at 3. Park personnel also began using "adverse conditioning" techniques on the goats. Dkt. 13, at 4. Further, a few months before the attack, Dr. Happe began exploring options to remove the goat. Dkt. 39-18, at 6. Section 4.4.4.2, "Removal of Exotic Species Already Present," does not contain a specific course of action applicable to this case.

As a further source of a claimed mandatory course of action, Plaintiff points to Olympic's Nuisance and Hazardous Animal Plan, which contains "Management Alternatives" for problem animals. Dkt. 12-2. In 2010 it provided:

Many options are available to manage problem animals. These are discussed below, arranged in a sequence of escalating management intervention and actions. For some species, such as black bear, a long history of management failures and successes exist. . . For other species, such as cougars, few proven management techniques exist.
Education and Training: Education of the public and training of employees is a priority activity. As mentioned previously, prevention measures may eliminate the need for other more intrusive measures.
Warnings and Advisories: An ongoing program to provide warnings and advisories for common or recurring wildlife problems should be a part of every District's operating practices. Routine warnings may be posted or distributed at all times. As appropriate for the location, and supplemented by specific advisories and cautionary signs as needed.
Monitoring and Observation: The best response to some types of incidents is to simply monitor the situation. . .
Exclusion: This is the primary technique in dealing with many problem species, particularly smaller mammals. Sealing-off or screening possible entry points into structures . . . will avoid nuisance problems from skunks, bats, and
rodents. Except for a few elk exclosures maintained for research, it is not NPS policy to fence or control the movements of larger mammals. . .
Seasonal, Non-Emergency Closures: Seasonal closures are pre-planned actions, as opposed to unplanned emergency closures. Both planned and unplanned closures are invoked under the Superintendent's discretionary authority contained in 36 C.F.R. 1.5. . . . Seasonal closures may entail various levels of restrictions. . . Such seasonal closures are highly recommended as a means to allow near-normal use of adjacent areas while protecting public safety and park wildlife. Though more difficult to impose in front country developed zones, such closures may be used where warranted. . .
Emergency Closures: This is a complete closure of a defined area to all entry and public use. The purpose is protect the public while trying to avoid imposing more intrusive measures on the problem animal. Such closures are implemented only in response to a serious incident or repeated encounters between people and hazardous animals in a fairly discrete, specific location.
Aversion Training: The use of various noise, contact, or chemical devices to frighten or haze animals and modify their behavior (such as attempts to beg) may occasionally be employed. These techniques must be precisely and consistently applied to be effective, and their use must be part of an approved plan and involve experienced, qualified personnel.
Capture and Release: Under this technique, a problem animal is captured using traps . . . and removed from the incident site and immediately released nearby. It is recommended for animals which are not likely to repeat the problem behavior or seriously threaten public safety. . .
Capture and Translocation: This is the capture of an animal and moving it to another, more distant location or outside of the park. It is rarely effective, may be hazardous to the animal and personnel, and is not a suitable practice in most instances. . .
Animal Destruction: Animals can be killed in several ways:
- Shooting with firearms by trained and authorized personnel,
- Chemical euthanasia by qualified and designated personnel,
- Chemical immobilization followed by shooting.
The method used will be that which is most humane and efficient while protecting the safety of employees and bystanders. In all cases, it will be one of the above listed techniques.

1. Aggressive hazing can mitigate this problem. Simply tossing a few rocks and yelling will not dissuade these animals. They must be struck with large rocks, chased, and pursued until they are some distance away from the area. . . This hazing is only a temporary measure, and the animals will inevitably return.
2. Another good hazing method is to use a wrist rocket (sling-shot) and rocks collected on site as ammo. . . .
3. More elaborate adverse conditioning may be authorized for this non-native species. If animals are causing significant problems in an area (particularly if there is severe, localized resource damage to vegetation and soils) the [Natural Resources Management] Division should be contacted for other adverse conditioning methods which can be used.

Olympic's Nuisance and Hazardous Animal Plan does not provide a mandatory directive in regard to how to handle the situation facing the park officials here. As stated above, they were moving through the plan - they were educating the public, warning the public, using aversion conditioning, and were considering removal of the goat. Further, Ranger Lustig states that she hiked the Switchback trail almost every working day, and encountered the goat less than about half the time and "generally it wasn't doing anything at that time that required any actual aversive conditioning." Dkt. 51-1, at 19. She states that she would, and did, aversive conditioning on the goat if "it is was the right thing to do on any particular day." Dkt. 51-1, at 19. Moreover, the Nuisance and Hazardous Animal Plan's "Management Alternatives" uses terms like "should" rather than "shall" and so leaves the park employees freedom to adapt to different species and situations. The Mountain Goat Plan, likewise, does not use any language requiring mandatory action in the circumstances presented here.

To the extent that Plaintiff argues that the timing of the decision to remove the goat was not discretionary under the above policies, she offers the testimony of Richard Olson, one of the drafters of the Nuisance and Hazardous Animal Plan, who stated that resolution of problem animals would normally be accomplished in one field season, and typically would take no longer than two seasons. Dkt. 28, at 3. He states that based on his experience (he was a ranger in Olympic for 34 years and retired in October of 2006), "few non-lethal techniques worked on intractable animals." Dkt. 28, at 3. Mr. Olson states that he personally encountered the goat and threw a large rock at it. Id., at 3. He states that it was unfazed by the pain. Id. He states that "[b]ased on his experience and training, [he] consider[ed] it very unusual that despite reports of this mountain goat's aggressive and threatening behavior toward people, the behavior was allowed to persist for four years." Id. He states that after efforts to haze the goat failed, the park service should have euthanized it. Id. He asserts that the decision to intervene with the animal involved discretion, but once the decision to intervene started, "following the process to the end does not involve discretion." Id., at 5.

Plaintiff also offers the Declaration of Paul Crawford, an Olympic park ranger for over 27 years, now retired, who stated that he was familiar with the goat that he believes to be the same one that killed Mr. Boardman due to its large size, aggressive behavior, and general location. Dkt. 29, at 3. Mr. Crawford states that he believes that the goat should have been killed, or the animal should have been separated from visitors by closing the trail. Id., at 4.

Plaintiff additionally points to the opinion of Valerius Geist, PhD., a zoologist with extensive experience with mountain goats, who states that, in his opinion, the staff at Olympic "failed to take appropriate and timely measures to remove the habituated goat." Dkt. 31, at 22. He opines that the park service should have removed it particularly "after failed hazing attempts lead to continued and repeated dominance displays during human encounters in 2009 and 2010." Id.

While considering the events in October of 2010, it is unlikely anyone would disagree with Plaintiff's experts - that further action should have been taken. However, the timing of that further action is not mandated by any of the identified policies. Up until the attack, there was not an emergency situation, and so the decision on whether and when to destroy the goat was left up to the Superintendent. Clearly, further actions here involved an element of judgment and choice - the exercise of discretion. Accordingly, there being no statute or policy directing either mandatory and specific action, or specifying time for such action, the court must continue to the second step of the discretionary function exception analysis. Myers, at 1028.

2. Whether the Judgment is of the Kind that the Discretionary Function Exception was Designed to Shield - Decisions Based on Considerations of Public Policy?

The second step requires the court to decide "'whether that judgment is of the kind that the discretionary function exception was designed to shield,' namely, 'only governmental actions and decisions based on considerations of public policy.'" Terbush, at 1130 (quoting Berkovitz, at 536-37.) In this context, public policy has been understood to include decisions "grounded in social, economic, or political policy." Terbush, at 1130 (quoting Varig, at 814).

In general, much of the park service's work is based on the mandate of the Organic Act, 16 U.S.C. § 1, which is to balance conservation of the parks and public access to them. Terbush, at 1130. The park has provided evidence that the decisions of what to do about the habituated mountain goats and the aggressive goat(s) prior to October of 2010, were, in part, grounded in social, economic and political policy.

The park argues that management of the goat population is susceptible to policy analysis because in deciding what to do and when to do it, they had to balance conservation of the goats and overall park with public access to the trails. Dkt. 12. While acknowledging that the goats are a non-native species and are entitled to less protection than native species, park service employees referenced political pressure to conserve the goat population in this park. Dkts. 13 and 14. The park service discussed a move in the 1980s to remove the goats from Olympic. Dkt. 4, at 3. They ultimately decided not to eliminate them entirely, and Deputy Superintendent Todd Suess acknowledged that in the "past, the park has encountered significant opposition to possible plans to remove some of the goats." Dkt. 13, at 5.

Moreover, Ranger Lustig testified that what the park should or should not do about the goats elicited a range of responses from the visitors, thus implicating social concerns. Dkt. 51-1, at 14. She stated that during "educational encounters" she would have with visitors while hiking the trail,

The most frequent response from people on that trial was generally that the goats, that the park should not hurt the goats. So to explain that it was both for the animals' and peoples' safety that we were deliberately hurting them by way of hazing them on occasion, took a fair amount of explaining, that to maintain their natural wariness, which was healthier for them and better for people, we actually did inflict a pain stimulus. So most people would respond with sympathy to the goats that we'd be hurting them.
There was, at the other end . . . people who felt very strongly that the goats, since they are not native to the Olympics, should not be there at all, and the park management should be hunting them to eliminate them.

Economic considerations also played into their decision making process. The park service chose to spend resources on attempting to balance public safety with conservation of the goats, public access to the goats, and public access to the trails by increasing patrols, warning and educating the public, and engaging in aversion conditioning. Deputy Superintendent Todd Suess states that all these actions diverted resources away from other park priorities. Dkt. 13.

Plaintiff argues that "in light of the very aggressive behavior this well-known 370 lb goat was displaying for years" and the fact that the park's Mountain Goat Plan noted that aversion conditioning would be unsuccessful, and it was unsuccessful, the park service's failure to take the only rational and proper safety precaution was not the exercise of social, economic, or political policy considerations. Dkt. 24.

Plaintiff also cites Francis v. United States, 2:08CV244 DAK, (D.C. Utah Cent. Dist. 2011), an unpublished decision, in support of her position. Dkt. 24, at 21-22. The Francis court ruled that the discretionary exception decision did not apply where the park service failed to take the only rational and necessary step - to destroy a black bear, that had attacked a camper the day before it killed the Plaintiffs' eleven-year-old boy. Id. The court there held that no rational consideration of public policy was involved. Id.

This case is different in many respects. First, a bear is a known predator. The park service personnel here, while acknowledging that someone might get hurt, did not know of any mountain goat attacks, and later found out that there had been only three non-fatal goat attacks in all the national parks' history. The park service in Francis acknowledged that regulations in place at the time required them to investigate the incident and to remain on site (even though they did not). No such regulations were in place here. Unlike the situation in Francis, the park service killed the subject goat immediately after the first attack. Further, as discussed below, the park service was balancing competing policy concerns as it tried to manage the mountain goats.

Plaintiff argues that while the design of the park's Nuisance and Hazardous Animal Plan and other policies is protected by the discretionary function exception, the implementation of that plan and other policies on the goat in question was not protected. Dkt. 24. Plaintiff cites Whisnant v. United States, 400 F.3d 1177 (9th Cir. 2005), in support of her position. Id.

In Whisnant, the plaintiff worked in the commissary at the U.S. Naval base in Bremerton, Washington. 400 F.3d at 1179. He brought suit against the United States for negligence under the FTCA for injuries he sustained as a result of the government's failure to clean up toxic mold which had accumulated at the commissary. Id. In rejecting the government's argument that the decision not to clean up the mold was grounded in social, economic or political considerations, the Ninth Circuit found, that "matters of scientific and professional judgment-particularly judgments concerning safety-are rarely considered to be susceptible to social, economic, or political policy," and that the failure to clean up mold there was a scientific and professional judgment. Whisnant, at 1181. It held that the "decision to adopt safety precautions may be based in policy considerations, but the implementation of those precautions is not.... [S]afety measures, once undertaken, cannot be shortchanged in the name of policy." Id., at 1182 (internal quotation omitted).

In acknowledging that the difficulty in distinguishing between what governmental decisions regarding safety are based in social, economic, and political policy and those that are not, the Whisnant Court reviewed other FTCA cases where safety had been an issue. Id. "[I]n a suit alleging government negligence in the design and maintenance of a national park road, we held that designing the road without guardrails was a choice grounded in policy considerations and was therefore shielded under the discretionary function exception, but maintaining the road was a safety responsibility not susceptible to policy analysis." Id., at 1181-1182 (citing ARA Leisure Servs. v. United States, 831 F.2d 193, 195 (9th Cir.1987)). It reviewed three cases where injuries resulted from the government's failure to post warnings concerning hazards present in national parks. Id., at 1182 (citing Valdez v. United States, 56 F.3d 1177, 1178, 1180 (9th Cir.1995); Childers v. United States, 40 F.3d 973, 976 (9th Cir.1994); and Summers v. United States, 905 F.2d 1212, 1215 (9th Cir.1990)). It remarked that the Ninth Circuit "held that the government's decision not to post signs warning of obvious dangers such as venturing off marked trails to walk next to the face of a waterfall, and the government's decision to use brochures rather than posted signs to warn hikers of the dangers of unmaintained trails, involved the exercise of policy judgment of the type Congress meant to shield from liability." Id. (citing Valdez and Childers).It noted that in Summers, though, "that such policy judgment was absent when the government simply failed to warn of the danger to barefoot visitors of hot coals on a park beach." Id. (citing Summers). The Whisnant Court noted additionally that there was an exception to the design/implementation distinction which was not relevant to the toxic mold situation at issue there. Id., n 3. It found that "implementation of a government policy is shielded where the implementation itself implicates policy concerns." Id. For example, "where government officials must consider competing fire-fighter safety and public safety considerations in deciding how to fight a forest fire," Id. (citing Miller v. United States, 163 F.3d 591, 595-96 (9th Cir.1998)), or "balance prison safety and inmate privacy considerations in deciding how to search a prisoner's cell in response to a reported threat of violence," Id. (citing Alfrey v. United States, 276 F.3d 557 (9th Cir 2002)), "or weigh various regulatory objectives in deciding whether to certify a new aircraft design" Id. (citing GATX/Airlog Co. v. United States, 286 F.3d 1168, 1175-77 (9th Cir.2002)).

As in Miller, Alfrey and GATX/Airlog Co., implementation of park policy regarding the management of the mountain goats implicated policy concerns. The park was forced to balance competing policy concerns of public safety (where there had been only three goat attacks in national park history - all of which were non-fatal) with the public's desire to see the goats, public access to the trials, and preservation of the goats. Although in retrospect one can conclude that the mountain goat should have been removed earlier, "that is the sort of judicial second guessing of government decision-making that the discretionary function exception was designed to protect." Bailey v. United States, 623 F.3d 855, 863 (9th Cir. 2010).

3. Conclusion on Discretionary Function Exception Analysis

United States' motion to dismiss (Dkt. 12) should be granted, except as to the claim that the Defendant failed to properly respond after the attack was reported. (The remaining claim was not argued or addressed by the pending motion.) Defendant is immunized from Plaintiff's FTCA claims based on the discretionary function exception. Plaintiff's FTCA claims should be dismissed, with the exception mentioned.

While this Court recognizes Plaintiff's loss of her husband and her concern about the park service's handling of the goat, Congress has given the park service a safe harbor in the discretionary function exception to her FTCA claim, even if "the discretion involved be abused." 28 U.S.C. § 2680(a). Mr. Boardman appears to have died trying to protect his wife and their friend. Even in sad cases like this one, the Court is duty bound to uphold the law, however difficult or unjust the result appears.

III. ORDER

Therefore, it is hereby ORDERED that:

• The United States' Motion to Dismiss (Dkt. 12) is GRANTED; and
• Plaintiff's FTCA claim regarding the park service's management of the goat is DISMISSED.

The Clerk is directed to send uncertified copies of this Order to all counsel of record and to any party appearing pro se at said party's last known address.

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ROBERT J. BRYAN

United States District Judge